Portfolio Introduction

 

Historical and International Context of Contemporary American Education

    Throughout history many things influenced American education, such as race, ethnicity, religion, social class, gender, and reform. School usually began in the home and was taught by family, just like today’s homeschooling. Religion used to play a big role in education. Education was meant to save souls and provide a path heaven. Measures we taken to make sure children were receiving the proper education. By 1647 the Old Deluder Satan Law was passed in Massachusetts that required towns of at least 50 people to hire a teacher of reading and writing, and towns of 100 people or more had to provide a grammar school to prepare students for the university. Shortly after this time Harvard was established. It was the first college in America and it was to prepare ministers. In the 1700’s Benjamin Franklin established the academy. It was free of religious influence and there was a wide variety of subjects taught.

Gender had a role on the type of education one received in the 1600’s as well. Girls only went to school until they learned to read and write. After that they stayed home to learn how to be homemakers. Samplers were stitched to show their accomplishments. Boys went on to further their education. In the 1800’s the first free secondary school was boys was established. Thirty years later a secondary school for girls opened. Secondary schools were generally private and costly. Free high school was not viewed like it is today. The public didn’t want to pay additional school taxes, but as the country moved from agricultural to industrial, the need for more education and training was needed so more high schools were created.

Social class played a role as well. If you weren’t wealthy then you received the less desirable apprenticeship and educational opportunities. Education became more available to the poor but only if you publicly admitted you were poor. Many decided it was better to have an illiterate child than to admit to being poor. In the 1700’s Jefferson committed to providing education to all white Americans regardless of their gender or social class. A hundred years later the common school was created which was publicly open to all, as well as the normal school which was devoted to preparing teachers in pedagogy.

    People of color and Native Americans were denied education. The Quakers created a special school for those of color in the early 1600’s but it was a rare opportunity. For many years states passed laws prohibiting African Americans from getting an education. There were even prison sentences given to those who were caught teaching slaves how to read or write. After the Civil War changes to the laws occurred, allowing African Americans to earn an education but they were segregated. White Southerners became angry and scared towards the education of African Americans. There was even terrorism against the schools. This is when schools became segregated but were supposedly equal. They were not equal though. African American schools didn’t have the necessary supplies to learn and some had to walk several miles a day to school. It wasn’t until the 1960’s that education become more equal for African Americans.

    In the late 1800’s and early 1900’s changes were being made to help make the transition from high school to college easier for all. The NEA established a committee that required high schools to teach required courses. The NEA also helped prepare adults for their roles in life. Educational reform in the 1980’s included the No Child Left Behind act. This was when standardized testing was equated with success. If the students tested well then, the school and staff were looked at in a positive way. If students did poorly on the tests then staff would be threatened with layoffs and school closings. It was also found that private schools were doing better than public schools.

Personal Philosophy of Education

    Every teacher has a philosophy of education that represents their beliefs and views. I believe every classroom has a group of influential, unique minds that need shaping. It is my goal as an educator to provide a safe and inviting atmosphere, so students can take to tools and skills I provide to become productive members of society. My educational philosophy is based mainly around Social Reconstructionism and Behaviorism. I believe every child is teachable and high expectations should be set for every one of them. Students should set high expectations for themselves as well. Many students learn differently and the only way they are going to be successful is to support them all. I believe in the behaviorism philosophy that behavior is learned and it can be modified or changed.

    It’s important to me to develop a curriculum around student interests, giving them the chance to study subjects that are important and relevant to their life. It stimulates motivation and makes learning much more interesting. At the beginning of every school year I believe students should help generate ideas and set goals for the year. When students take part in the development of the curriculum, they are apt to be more motivated to work and learn skills needed to reach their goals. I believe children can become productive participants of the classroom by using responsive classroom tactics.  This includes positive reinforcement, holding children responsible for their own learning and actions, and the tools to become successful in life. Working as a behavior instructor in the past, I believe in the behaviorism approach to instruction. This is when the teacher provides positive reinforcement for appropriate behavior displayed that they want to continue. An instructional method that gives immediate reinforcement is electronic devices and other technology. Other methods aside from technology that I would use is problem solving, and critical thinking. I like the idea of applying skills learned in school, outside of school so students can appreciate their usefulness.

    My classroom will be a fair, caring, and safe environment where each child can grow and develop into individuals. Exhibiting respectful and positive behavior every day is important and using positive motivation is vital for students to be excited about learning. When dealing with consequences, students will be treated with respect and dignity so they feel comfortable taking actions for their behavior. Student mistakes should be treated as a learning opportunity. As a teacher, I will work together with students so they realize they can control their actions. This should lead to an effective, respectful classroom.

I believe assessment is essential to helping students learn. Frequent and continuous feedback is important so the student knows they are accurately absorbing the material. Assessing students’ knowledge and understanding should be done without the use of standardized testing or testing of any sort. I have learned through firsthand experience that some people are not successful when it comes to taking tests. Examples of assessment practices I would use are reflection, and brainstorming. Reflection allows students to think about the material they learned and put it into their own words. During a brainstorming assessment, the instructor can ask an open-ended question while students brainstorm, either working alone or together. Both assessment methods can stimulate creative thoughts and flowing ideas.

    As an educator, I believe it’s important to expand your role outside of the school. In my opinion having a professional relationship with student’s family and the community is beneficial to the student and the educator. Communication with a student’s family can help the educator learn more about the student, their strengths and where they might need more support. It’s important for the educator to have a professional relationship with the community as well. The community’s perception of the educator is more than likely going to influence their perception of the school as well. As an educator, I will always be willing to engage in professional development. I have many young, influential minds that will look up to me so it’s important to make the best impression possible. My philosophy of education can help me achieve this, along with providing a safe, inviting, constructive atmosphere.

Sociology of Education and Equity in Educational Opportunity

    There are issues and concerns that center around education. Poverty plays a big role in our countries educational system. Whether it’s the money a district lacks to meet its school’s expenses or money a family lacks to meet their basic needs. It has been proven that family income correlates with academic success (Jenson, 2009), and too many families are living in poverty. They are faced with many challenges that affect their behavior and academic performance, such as lack of food and supplies to take care of basic needs, poor mental health, and many times the absence of one or both parents. Many families in poverty lack food and necessities. When a child goes to school hungry it can be hard for them to concentrate and they are more likely to act out. It can be difficult for teachers to identify the initial cause of the problematic behavior. It’s important for teachers to take the correct actions when working with children from a low socioeconomic status. It’s important not to demean or label students, and instead embody respect and implant social skills.

    Students who are raised in poverty or with exposure to trauma can experience acute and chronic stress. Stress has numerous effects on a child’s developing brain and body. Stress can affect a child’s brain development, academic success, and social competence (Jenson, p 22). They can have both academic and behavioral problems in school. Depression can increase, while motivation and effort decrease.

    There are many concerns and issues surrounding education today. There always has been. Today, poverty and other issues surrounding money, are effecting a large percentage. Our country needs more dedicated, high qualified, responsible teachers. Teachers who commit to doing their best every day can do wonders for their students while they’re in school. There is very little that can be done about a student’s home life, so it’s important to use that time in school productively.

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Part I- The Learner and Learning

Theme: Candidates demonstrate their ability to thoughtfully examine, critically analyze, and insightfully reflect upon their readiness to use an understanding of learning theory, learner development, and learner differences for the design of effective learning experiences in a variety of settings with diverse learners.

Standard 1: Learner Development

    Performance Criterion 1.1 Candidates use an understanding of learning theory (in areas such as cognitive, linguistic, social, emotional, and physical) to design appropriate learning experiences.

Guide of Modifications and Accommodations for Mary and Johnny

Description

    There are different ways knowledge is absorbed, processed, and retained during learning. The three major learning theories are social constructivism, cognitivism, and behaviorism (“Overview of learning theories”, 2017). Social constructivism was based on the work of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. According to Learning Theories (2015), the theory of social constructivism focuses on the belief that learning occurs through social interaction and individual experiences. Students can also learn through peer interactions while the teacher mediates and structures the discussion to keep things moving smoothly in the right direction. The teacher may present concepts and questions that reference previously learned material, which allows the student to be more responsible for their own learning. When a student incorrectly answers a question, the teacher helps the student build a new understanding by asking nonjudgmental questions. The students then work together to use each other as resources.               

Cognitive constructivism is based on the work of Piaget. This theory states that learning occurs through the internal processing of information and prior experiences by rather than just responding to stimuli (McLeod, 2013). Learning is facilitated by providing an environment that promotes accommodation and discovery. Changes in the learner’s behavior are used as indicators as to what’s happening in the brain.

The theory of behaviorism comes from the work of B.F. Skinner and the concept of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning states that a behavior will be repeated if it is followed by a positive consequence (positive reinforcement), while a negative consequence (negative reinforcement) after a behavior is less likely to be repeated (McLeod, 2018). It is believed that everyone starts with a blank slate and learning occurs through changes in behavior ( McLeod, 2003).

    During the summer of 2017 I took a graduate level Child and Adolescent Development course. One assignment was to find a lesson plan and make accommodations and modifications based on the profiles of two fictional, but realistic students, Mary and Johnny. Making appropriate accommodations and modifications for students like Mary and Johnny is essential for students to learn. Teachers need to figure out how all their students absorb and retain knowledge to make every lesson plan successful. After analyzing the basics of each learning theory, I believe it would be useful to analyze the lesson plan assignment and other learning experiences through the lens of Cognitive Constructivism because it keeps all students actively engaged in their learning.

Analysis

It is important to think about learning theories when creating lesson plans and activities for the classroom. Making appropriate accommodations for students like Mary and Johnny, or any student, is essential for students to learn. Understanding how your students learn best is the first step in making lesson plans successful. Engaging students in the content is an important part of lesson planning. Starting the lesson by asking an intriguing question, or investigating a problem supports the Cognitive Constructivism learning theory. The lesson plan I accommodated and modified incorporated Cognitive Constructivism by beginning the lesson with a question for students targeting what they already knew about the solar system. This allows students to use their prior knowledge and experiences in learning. It may also get students interested and active in their learning.

Johnny, is a fictionalized student, with Asperger’s Syndrome. Due to his difficulties understanding body cues and gestures, he may not always understand sarcasm or humor. He may sometimes exhibit poor motor and organizational skills. His intelligence is above average and he has good verbal skills, yet he is socially awkward and lacks empathy. Mary, is a fictionalized character who has a below average intelligence. She exhibits poor motor skills and difficulty with memorization. The lesson plan I created for a first grade level classroom made adjustments to include group work and motor skills. The original lesson begins with students coming up to the board and drawing or writing anything they know about the solar system. For this part of the lesson I made accommodations for both Mary and Johnny but felt they didn’t modifications. For Mary I thought it would be appropriate for her to answer the questions orally, rather than writing it down, due to her difficulty with writing. For Johnny I would give him cues during the lesson and cues when it’s appropriate to answer questions to keep him focused.

In the original lesson students learn and write the planets in order, and understand the word orbit. Accommodations for Mary include reciting the order of the planets, rather than writing them, and working with a partner. A partner can help her understand the orbit of planets and transcribe for her. A modification for Mary is having her only write the first four planets in order since she has a difficult time with memorization. There was only one accommodation for Johnny and no modifications. Johnny could be accommodated by working in a small group. The small group might help him focus more on the task.

The final part of the lesson has students stand up in front of the class. Students are broken up into two different groups. The first group has each student holding a different size ball. Each ball represents a planet. For example, Jupiter would be a basketball, and Earth would be represented by a ping pong ball. The second group uses their bodies as planets in place of the balls. One student is the sun who stands in the middle and the other students need to stand and orbit around the sun correctly. The groups then switch. I felt in this type of hands on group lesson, Mary wouldn’t need any modifications or accommodations. Being a visual lesson, it gives her the opportunity to learn the planets size in comparison to others and in their correct order, without having to read or write. Johnny didn’t require any modifications but there were a couple accommodations. When it is his groups turn to handle the different balls, it would be best for Johnny to use the bigger ball. He has displayed motor difficulties at times so the larger ball would be easier for him to manipulate. One accommodation for Johnny when the groups switch and it’s Johnny’s turn to use his body as a planet, is to pre-teach the lesson. Pre-teaching the lesson to Johnny would give him the opportunity to practice  before the actual lesson. Pre-teaching some of the skills to Johnny before the whole class lesson may also lessen some of the social awkwardness or lack of confidence he may have with the lesson.

This type of lesson that includes group work implements cognitivism. Aside from some pre-teaching the teacher acts more as a facilitator. This allows students to learn more from one another. This is where the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) comes in. The ZPD is the point where a student can learn without the help of others, and where the student can do something with the help of another (McLeod, 2012).

Reflection

    Modifying lesson plans and making accommodations based on student needs and the way they learn best, will make for a better learning experience. Evaluating student needs and using various learning theories to create lesson plans, will make a more positive and knowledgeable learning experience as well. When I was given the profiles of Mary and Johnny I was able to gather what accommodations and modifications should be implemented to give them the best learning experience. It seems like it could be a daunting task to do this for every student for every lesson. As I progress through my own education and with more firsthand experience, I’m sure it will become easier. The different learning theories and learning to modify a lesson plan based on student needs was an important and educational experience for me.

    When I am given the opportunity to design lessons, cognitive constructivism is what I would choose to employ first. Although I think it’s important to incorporate all of the learning theories, cognitive constructivism allows students to be more active in their education. Students can take previously learned material and apply it to what is currently being taught, and learn new information based from their interests and ideas. Sometimes it may also require students to modify their existing beliefs. Because of this, learners are motivated by intrinsic factors. As a teacher, it is important to make sure every student is motivated to learn and has a successful learning experience.

Standard 2: Learning Differences

    Performance Criterion 2.1 Candidates use an understanding of individual differences to design inclusive learning experiences.

UDL Lesson Plan

Description:

    For many years children with disabilities did not have the opportunity to learn alongside their peers in the classroom. They had to learn in separate classrooms or even separate schools. Luckily that is not the case today. Inclusive classrooms are when all children, regardless of their challenges, are placed in age-appropriate General Education classes where they receive the same instruction and supports as typical students (McManis, 2018). “Successful inclusive education happens primarily through accepting, understanding, and attending to student differences and diversity, which can include the physical, cognitive, academic, social, and emotional” (McManis, 2018). Although inclusion is very important, there are some children whose disabilities are severe enough where they would not benefit from an inclusive classroom, nor would the other students in the classroom. It could lead to unsafe situations for the entire classroom, or disruptions in learning.

    From first hand experience I have learned that not all teachers have the expertise nor resources to teach special education needs students. For this reason I believe it’s necessary for all teachers to take and receive special education training. Students with a disability need more supports. Sometimes being in the mainstream classroom can hinder them more than having them in a special education setting full time.

   Universal Design for Learning (UDL) lesson plans allows a variety of teaching methods to be used. There are three principles to the UDL, representation, action and expression, and engagement. Representation is when the teacher delivers the material in different formats. This allows different students to learn in different ways. For example, if the teacher were delivering a lecture she could include a handout of the lecture. Action and expression is giving students more than one way to interact with the material. For a final project the teacher might give students the option to make a poster or give an oral presentation. This allows students to demonstrate their learning in a way that makes sense for them. Finally, engagement allows students to be involved in the content, and peers in diverse ways. For example, to minimize distractions the teacher could have a student wear headphones. Universal Design for Learning gives students an equal opportunity to succeed because the teacher is adapting to the students, rather than making students adapt.

Analysis:

    In the fall of 2018 I spent 80 hours observing Mrs. L’s fourth grade classroom at Friendship Elementary. Her classroom was the ultimate example of an inclusive classroom. There were a couple of students who had individualized education plans (IEPs), one with a behavior plan, and one with a more severe disability. Aside from the classroom teacher, there was one individual assistant who stayed with the child. Regardless of the activity done in class all students participated. There were some times during the day when those students were pulled out for reading intervention, special education, and speech. I understand how important it is for them to receive their services but it was also distracting to some students.

    There were different accommodations and modifications I observed while in the fourth grade classroom. There was alternative seating, laptops and iPads, instructions were always clearly written, manipulatives, and books on tape. All of these accommodations were readily available to students who needed them. The alternative seating was available to all students. There were bouncy balls, scoop seats, t-stools, and bean bag chairs. The teacher believed all students would benefit from alternative seating choices so a chart was created to rotate students through the different options.

    One assignment for the semester while observing Mrs. L’s classroom was to do an interactive read aloud. For my read aloud I decided to read The Three Little Wolves and the Big Bad Pig and compare and contrast it with The Three Little Pigs and the Big Bad Wolf. I created a UDL plan for this lesson. When teachers apply UDL principles in the classroom the teacher is able to reach a broad range of learning abilities and style. In my UDL lesson plan I allowed students to view the text as I read so they could follow along for multiple means of representation. For multiple means of action and expression students drew the Venn diagram to compare and contrast the two books, and also the interactive oral discussion throughout the reading. For multiple means of engagement I included all students in the interactive read aloud. I also provided positive reinforcement for desired behaviors, and created an accepting and supportive classroom environment.

Reflection:

    All children, regardless of how they learn, deserve the opportunity to have a high quality education. There are circumstances where inclusion is not always the right decision. I feel if a student were placed in a mainstream classroom when it wasn’t appropriate it could have negative consequences for all students. Not all teachers have the appropriate training and resources to teach students who need extra support. I have come to realize that even students without a documented disability may learn differently than their peers or at a different pace.     

    I felt the teacher for the fourth grade did a great job creating an inclusive classroom. Although she may not have used the UDL template to create her lessons, she was still making sure all the principles were utilized. I felt I did an adequate job at making sure all the principles were included and executed in my interactive read aloud. Students present for the read aloud were able to participate in their own way.

Standard 3: Learning Environment

    Performance Criterion 3.1: Candidates design learning environments that support individual learning marked by active engagement.

Student Survey

Description:

    A student’s social environment can play an important part in their ability to learn. Having a classroom where students feel safe and comfortable to share their opinions and thoughts can increase the students success in the classroom. If they feel free from judgement from their peers and teacher they will be more engaged in their learning. As a teacher, one of my responsibilities is to create a learning environment that will support individual learning. This will be partially evident by the students engagement. The students learning environment can affect their engagement in many ways, whether it’s students living with adversity or situations originating from school.

    Children who live with different adverse situations at home can have an affect on their engagement and performance in the classroom (Inservice Guest Blogger, 2018).  Adversities such as abuse, homelessness, parent death or incarceration, and mental health can have a negative effect on school performance. It is important as an educator to show empathy for students and also have confidence that they can accomplish what any other student can, regardless of what is happening in their social and home life. According to Inservice Guest Blogger (2018) there are five elements of a positive classroom environment for students living in adversity; positive asset based relationships, students have a voice and choice, lessons connect to students lives, the physical classroom environment, and practicing routines. I believe these characteristics apply to any student, regardless of their situation.

Every student regardless of their home life or situation deserves a positive asset based relationship. Getting to know students is a good first step in building a healthy relationship. Gathering information about them such as their qualities and strengths is a good first step in getting to know your students. Many students who live in adverse situations can experience a lack of power and control. Giving students a voice to address issues and make decisions about different situations in the classroom can help build their confidence, resulting in a more engaged student. Connecting lessons to students lives are another way to increase student engagement in the classroom. Developing lessons that are meaningful to students lives encourages them to become more emotionally invested in their learning (Inservice Guest Blogger, 2018).

A classrooms routine and practice is another element that can help build a positive classroom environment that can ultimately lead to active engagement in students. Students who have a routine to rely on, especially those who have lived such sporadic lifestyles, are able to experience a sense of calmness with the predictability that comes with routines. The last characteristic to provide a positive environment is the physical environment of the classroom. According to Inservice Guest Blogger (2018) students should have the opportunity to have an input on the arrangement and design of the classroom. Arranging the classroom so it is organized and inviting will encourage students to do their best. As a teacher the different elements of a positive classroom environment can be brought all together or you can choose which elements to incorporate into the classroom.                                                                                                                                                                                      

Analysis:

    During my observations in Mrs. L’s fourth grade classroom at Friendship Elementary School I was able to see some of the elements of a positive classroom environment being used. The elements I saw being used that helped create a safe inviting classroom environment for students was positive asset based relationships, lessons connected to students lives, the physical classroom environment, and practicing routines. The one element that really stood out to me during my observation was creating positive asset based relationships.

    The fourth grade teacher at Friendship Elementary did a great job at creating positive asset based relationships. She shared with me an interest survey she gave to her students at the beginning of the year to learn more about them. The more she knows about her students the better the relationship she can have with each one. The interest inventory is given each year at the beginning of the year to gather basic information about each student, including favorite foods and animals, fears, goals for themselves, and what they like to do during their free time. The teacher uses the replies to these questions to help her build more personal relationships with her students and to also plan her curriculum. When students have a genuine interest in what they are learning they tend to excel at it (Siamak Vahidi, 2015). This is also a great way to engage the students.

I wasn’t present at the beginning of the year to see the interest surveys administered but I was able to look at them to get an idea of the survey results. It was interesting to see how familiar some of the student replies were. Many students had similar goals, and they were all academic goals. Many wanted to learn how to read better, or excel at math. Many of the students had similar interests as well, such as enjoying reading graphic novels such as Captain Underpants and playing baseball. Baseball is one of the organized sports the students may wish to participate in.

Reflection:

    Before I began my observations I never knew there was a way to purposely create your own classroom environment. I assumed it became what it was based on the grade level, and the number and type of students you had in the class. I have learned that there are many ways to create an engaging classroom environment, where all students can thrive. One of my goals as a teacher is to create a classroom environment that will fully support and engage all learners. One way I plan to do this is by giving an interest survey within the first couple days of school. It’s important I learn early on all about my students. Their interests, fears, strengths and weaknesses. Knowing these things will allow me to support my students and help create the environment they need to stay actively engaged.

    There are other ways I could get to know my students and build positive  relationships with them aside from interest surveys. It may be beneficial for me to arrive early to class so I am there to individually greet each student at the door. If students arrive early before class, I could use that time to have conversations with them and learn more about their personal interests. It could also be a time for students to approach me with any concerns or issues they may have and would like to discuss. I would love to be that teacher that anyone in the school would feel comfortable approaching and talking to, whether they have had me as a teacher or not. I want all students and colleagues in the school to feel like they could talk to me about anything, as well.  In my opinion this is a great way to develop a positive student/teacher relationship, as well as with colleagues. When students are able to develop close, caring relationships with their teachers it helps fulfill their developmental need for connections. So much of a child’s day is spent at school. As a teacher it’s going to be very important to have a positive relationship with the students.

                                                                                                                                                                                                   

References

Inservice Guest Blogger. (2018). Five Elements of a Positive Classroom Environment for Students Living with Adversity. Retrieved from ASCD Inservice Website

 

Jensen, E. (2009). Teaching with poverty in mind: What being poor does to kids' brains

and what schools can do about it. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

 

Learning theories and models summaries. Educational Psychology. (2015, June 20).

Retrieved from here

 

Mcleod, G. (2003). Learning Theory and Instructional Design. Retrieved from here

 

McLeod, S. (2012, January 01). Zone of Proximal Development. Retrieved from here

 

McManis, L. (2018, August 22). Inclusive Education: Definition, Examples, and Classroom Strategies. Retrieved from here

 

Overview of Learning Theories. (2017). Retrieved from here

 

Sadker, David & Zittleman, K. R. (2016). Teachers, Schools, and Society : A Brief Introduction to Education. New York, Ny: Mcgraw-Hill Education.

    

Siamak Vahidi. (2015, July 23). Assessing Students’ Interests | The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented (1990-2013). Retrieved March 1, 2019, from here:

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